| Colonization of Mars:
In view of the proximity of Mars to Earth, we can say that its colonization in the foreseeable future can be considered an important task for mankind. Its environmental conditions that are comparatively similar to the ones on Earth also make this venture more desiring. However, till date, no practical steps have been taken in this direction.
Exploration of Mars:
Depiction of Mars with different detailed levels at different points of times:
In 1659 Francesco Fontana while viewing Mars in a telescope made the first picture of the planet. He painted a black spot in the center of a clearly defined sphere. In 1660 the black spot was supplemented with two polar caps, added by Jean-Dominique Cassini. In 1888, Giovanni Schiaparelli, who studied in Russia, assigned first names to different parts of surface: Aphrodite, Eritrean, Adriatic, Cimmerian seas; Sun, Moon and Phoenix lakes.
Observation of Mars through telescopes really got a boost from the end of nineteenth century till mid twentieth century. In many ways it was caused by the public interest and the well publicized scientific controversy over the observed Martian canals. The famous astronomers that were involved in telescopic observation of Mars before the space age include Schiaparelli, Percival Lowell, Slipher, Antoniadi, Edward Barnard, Gavriil Tikhov, Gerard Vaucouleurs. These astronomers laid the foundation of areography and compiled first detailed maps of the Martian surface - although later they were found to be almost completely invalid after robotic probes were sent to Mars.
State sovereignty, i.e. the power of the state, is territorial in nature. Airspace, as well as the water surface of the Earth, is divided into national parts, which is under the sovereignty of the corresponding state and the international part is beyond the sovereignty of any state. In contrast, outer space, in all its unity, is international space, which is open for access and research for all countries.
Presently, around 8000 artificial objects are being followed at altitudes of up to 2000 km and 95% of them are space debris. By colliding, debris gets crumbled. Their number doubles in about 30 years. To restrain the growth of space debris, it is necessary to avoid the blowing up of old satellites and undertake measures to bring them down from orbit.
It is curious, that in 1976, a series of equatorial states tried to assert their exclusive claims to the geostationary orbit on the pretext that, the projection of this orbit passes through their territory and the identified objects hang motionless above the corresponding points of the earth's surface. However, these claims were rejected by the majority of States with reference to the exclusion principle of the national appropriation of outer space.
But, where does the territory of the state ends and no man’s outer space begin? At present, a formal demarcation of space and air space does not exist. However, in practice, a tacit "gentleman's agreement" was formed, which states that space 100 – 110 km above the sea level is to be considered as outer space. For example, particularly the 100 km altitude should be attained by suborbital spaceship to win X-Prize in the competition. Many international lawyers have spoken impartially about the appearance of an appropriate international law.
The problem of the high-altitude limit of sovereignty is very real at the intersection of national airspace during the launch and landing of spacecrafts. Each state finds a solution to this problem in its own way. For example, RF Law "On Space" allows foreign space objects to organize an innocuous single flight through the airspace of the country with the purpose of a launch into Earth’s orbit or beyond and a return to Earth. It is only necessary to notify the respective departments well in advance.
From legal point of view, one can distinguish between the natural celestial bodies that do not belong to national appropriation according to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and artificial space objects, which are considered as conventional territory of state, in the registry of which these artificial space objects have been registered.
It is widely accepted that the government's rule extends throughout its territory. But, regions of space or objects exist, which are beyond the borders of the state, where the state can realize its power within certain limits – which is also called “conditional territory”. The examples are the buildings of diplomatic missions abroad, military ships and aircrafts.
The expression "retain jurisdiction and control" exists in international treaties in outer space. It means that the state has the right to demand the adherence of national law onboard its spacecrafts and on the basis of this, make it liable and also implement other compulsory acts of government (court decisions, etc). For example, during a flight on the Russian spacecraft "Soyuz", according to article 20 of the Russian Law on "Space Activities", the commander of the crew shall have full authority, necessary for the realization of space flight, crew management and others involved in flight. In this case, only the Russian citizens can be appointed "commander" and onboard foreign nationals are supposed to comply with Russian legislation. |
Space tourism is a rapidly maturing industry. Spaceport America, a launch site in Las Cruces, New Mexico, opened its first runway on October 22. During the next three years, companies such as Virgin Galactic, headquartered at Spaceport America, expect to make up to two launches per day for space tourists. Scientists predict that emissions from commercial space flights will accelerate climate change and global warming. Meanwhile Virgin Galactic promises that soon enough space tourism will be affordable not just for millionaires but for the general public.
